Shuttle-Mir Science

Phase 1 Program Overview

Science was a big part of Shuttle-Mir from the beginning. However, in the words of Mission Scientist John Uri, "We knew that it was going to be a crash course." Compared to Space Shuttle science activities, which typically have 4 to 5 years of preparation, the Shuttle-Mir science program was developed in 2 years and was then flown on spacecraft unfamiliar to NASA and Russian scientists.

NASA scientists had enjoyed professional contacts with Russian space scientists for years, going back to before the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project of 1975. In 1992, Carolyn Huntoon, Director of Space and Life Sciences at Johnson Space Center, headed a science delegation that accompanied NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin to his early Shuttle-Mir meetings in Moscow. At first, the plan was to fly a cosmonaut on the Space Shuttle and an astronaut on Mir, and life sciences would dominate their science activities. Then in late 1993, the two governments agreed to expand Phase 1, and other scientific disciplines were invited to participate. "The program ballooned tremendously," according to Uri.

One NASA team, headed by Peggy Whitson, continued to concentrate on NASA-1 astronaut Norm Thagard's life sciences investigations. John Uri oversaw the overall Shuttle-Mir science program. NASA joined the international Priroda module program and helped to support Priroda with experiments and equipment. NASA outfitted another module-Spektr-with more than 1600 pounds of equipment, mainly for biomedical research. Charles Stegemoeller headed up NASA's Spektr effort. Gary Kitmacher led the Priroda team.

The undertaking was an ambitious scientific and logistical task. According to Stegemoeller, the science teams had to work nonstop. As John Uri put it, "I don't think anyone's ever attempted that kind of a broad program-on somebody else's vehicle, . . . across nine time zones, . . . across a language barrier."

In spite of the challenges, Shuttle-Mir produced good science, and good lessons were learned for the International Space Station. Norm Thagard essentially flew as a guest cosmonaut researcher on Mir. Beginning with NASA-2 Mir astronaut Shannon Lucid, the science program grew into more than just a research program. It became a much more integrated, international operation-much like the International Space Station was going to be.

Also, as the Shuttle-Mir science program expanded across its disciplines, NASA solicited outside investigators to submit proposals for experiments. Hundreds of proposals were received. Along with the Russian co-investigators, scientists from other nations-such as Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Hungary-participated in Shuttle-Mir science investigations.

As with other aspects of the Shuttle-Mir Program, progress and cooperation occurred in fits and starts. Delays and other problems forced NASA's science team to rethink, revise, and rework its program. For example, when the launch of Spektr was delayed, a NASA science team was able to place vital equipment on a Progress resupply vehicle. This vehicle arrived at Mir in time to enable Norm Thagard to perform scientific experiments until Spektr was successfully launched in May 1995, allowing Thagard to expand his work even further. In June, when the STS-71 crew arrived at Mir to pick up Thagard and his Mir-19 crewmates, Atlantis carried a Space Lab module in its payload bay, and the Shuttle crew conducted many experiments during the mission.

NASA-5 astronaut Mike Foale's mission demonstrated the sometimes sudden growth of cooperation. As John Uri told it, the high point for him was immediately after the collision. "From a science perspective, we were practically dead in the water. We had no power. We had lost the [Spektr] module where our life sciences hardware was. . . . And all of a sudden, we said, 'This is Mike's flight. We've got two more [flights] after him. If we continue the program, we'd better figure how to work around him. How are we going to get through and finish the program as successfully as we want?'

"So we all got together-on our side and with the Russians. There was a Progress already scheduled to launch, 10 days after the Spektr collision occurred. And usually, if you want to fly hardware on there, it's weeks'-if not longer-process to get it there, and get it launched, and so on."

The Russians were accommodating. In 10 days' time, NASA shipped the hardware to Russia, and the Russians shipped it to Baikonur. They put it on the Progress, and it was on its way to Mir.

In sum, seven U.S. astronauts and 20 Russian cosmonauts did science onboard Mir during Phase 1 of the International Space Station. More than 150 "principal investigators" developed approximately 75 long-duration investigations in seven major research areas: advanced technology, Earth sciences, fundamental biology, human life sciences, International Space Station risk mitigation, microgravity, and space sciences. Among other activities, Mir crewmembers observed changes on Earth, grew wheat plants, "fixed" quail eggs, and monitored their own adaptations to life in microgravity. Many more investigations were performed by the astronauts and cosmonauts who flew on the Space Shuttles that docked with Mir.

Advanced technology experiments in biotechnology, microbiology, and pharmacology tested and validated technologies for use on the International Space Station. One experiment that used a Russian furnace may ultimately lead to more perfect metal products with longer useful lifetimes.

Earth observations by Mir crewmembers added 22,000 images to the approximately 300,000 Earth photographs already taken by U.S. astronauts. Mir crewmembers documented long-term climatic changes, alterations in human land use, and baseline conditions that led up to and through the 1997-1998 El Niño weather phenomena. They also photographed more ephemeral events, such as volcano eruptions and wildfires.

Fundamental biology investigations focused on plant and bird embryo development, insects' circadian rhythms, and the radiation levels inside and outside Mir. Plant experiments yielded the largest plant biomass ever produced in space, as well as the first plants developed from seeds produced and harvested in space.

Human life sciences investigations studied the effects of long-duration spaceflight on the crewmembers themselves. These covered the immune system, cardiovascular function, neurovestibular function, the musculoskeletal system, regulatory physiology, the risk of developing kidney stones, and the psychology of crew interactions.

International Space Station risk mitigation experiments used Mir as a test bed for hardware, materials, processes, and operations that are proposed or planned for the International Space Station. One experiment studied micrometeoroid impacts on Mir. Another investigated how materials and structures respond to long exposures to the low Earth orbit environment.

Microgravity science investigations were performed in fluid physics, materials processing, combustion science, biotechnology and micro-accelerations. A Canadian-built system used magnetic levitation to isolate sensitive experiments from very small movements. A biotechnology experiment developed spherical tissues difficult to produce on Earth. Proteins and crystals were grown, using new techniques and their analysis by X-ray diffraction and other methods may lead to advances in pharmacology and molecular biology.

Space science experiments, externally mounted on Mir, collected both extraterrestrial natural particulates and artificial particulates, which result from spacecraft offgassing and the vented propellants from expended rocket stages.

Advanced Technologies

By conducting technology experiments in space, new insight may be gained concerning industrial needs and technological developments on Earth. NASA utilizes the unique characteristics of the space environment, primarily the near absence of gravity (or microgravity), to expand researchers' knowledge of physics, chemistry, materials and fluids sciences and biotechnology.

Researchers processed materials in space and analyzed them in order to understand the effects of microgravity on their fundamental properties. Furthermore, these researchers wanted to characterize the microacceleration environment on the Mir Space Station; it is important to know the locations and magnitudes of acceleration forces in space stations because these forces can disturb certain experiments. Researchers also examined combustion phenomena in the microgravity environment.

Advanced Technologies Experiments List:

ASTROCULTURE (ASC)
Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA #1 & #2)
Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG)
Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG-CVDA)
Liquid Motion Experiment (LME)
Materials in Devices as Superconductors (MIDAS)
Optizon Liquid Phase Sintering Experiments
X-ray Detector Test (XDT)

Earth Sciences

Our solar system is dynamic and ever-changing, and there are many unanswered questions concerning both its origin and its future. During the Shuttle-Mir program, scientists studied the history of the development of the different planetary systems, as well as the outlook for our own planet Earth.

Shuttle-Mir scientists from both the United States and Russia also studied our own planet Earth, and how events such as destruction of rain forests, global warming, Earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions impact our Earth. Scientists used the Mir Space Station as a planetary observatory in space, and also used space technology such as satellites, remote sensing, and space photography to make detailed assessments of the Earth's land and water.

Equipment on the Mir's Priroda module was used to analyze changes in the biosphere and the atmosphere. Scientists also studied seasonal changes over several target areas on land (Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, and the Nile River, to name just two examples) and in water (such as, in the Pacific Ocean, Caribbean Sea and Chesapeake Bay).

Furthermore, extensive inflight photography was done to map changes to specific geographical sites. Scientists worked to ensure that the Mir's Earth observation equipment and U.S. satellite equipment were calibrated correctly to yield comparable data. The outcome of this joint Shuttle-Mir research will be an Earth observation database consisting of data and images to be used by researchers worldwide.

NASA hopes that these experiments will move scientists one step closer to solving the unanswered questions about our solar system. Experiments List: Mir Window Survey Visual Earth Observations (OBS) Watershed Hydrologic Studies

Earth Sciences Experiments List:

Mir Window Survey
Visual Earth Observations (OBS)
Watershed Hydrologic Studies

Fundamental Biology

Space biology research in the Shuttle-Mir program focused on studying how microgravity influences and affects the growth and development of plants and animals. Specifically, this area of research involves studying (1) the fundamental growth and development of plants and animals during extended durations in microgravity, (2) facilities for growing plants in a space station environment, and (3) the radiation environment in low Earth orbit.

All life is influenced by the pull of Earth's gravity. For example, plants respond to gravity (called gravitropism) by showing a downward growth of roots even when placed on their sides. Plants also respond to light (called phototropism) and will bend toward any light source placed near them. Researchers have developed experiments that will add to the understanding of how plants develop and use these gravity responses by comparing and studying how they react in space, without the presence of Earth's gravity.

The effects of space flight on crop plants is an important area of research, since plants could eventually be a major contributor to life support systems in long term space flight. Plants produce oxygen and food while eliminating carbon dioxide and excess humidity from the environment. These functions would contribute greatly to sustaining life in the closed environment of a spacecraft.

The ways in which animals may be affected by microgravity was also investigated in the Shuttle-Mir program. Researchers studied how gravity influences the development of embryos, since it is believed that normal embryonic development relies heavily on the ability of the embryo to maintain a genetic program. If a disturbance, such as microgravity, interferes with this program, developmental abnormalities could occur.

Plant growth was also studied as part of the Fundamental Biology research program. A Russian/Slovakian-developed plant growth facility called the "Svet" was used throughout the program for growing plants. The U.S. added new lighting and watering systems to enhance plant growth conditions, as well as an instrumentation system to gather information on how microgravity affects the gas exchange process in plants. The scientific data collected on Mir will be used to build better plant growth facilities on the International Space Station. It is hoped that one day, astronauts can grow their own food on the space station.

Space radiation, often considered the primary hazard associated with space flight, is also important to study since it can have a great impact on human health. In space, crewmembers are subjected to greater amounts of natural radiation than they receive on Earth, exposing them to possible immediate and long-term risks.

There are three major sources of radiation in space. The first, trapped belt radiation, occurs from particles found in the Earth's magnetic field. A second type, called galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), consists of particles that originate outside the solar system. The third type results from a solar particle event (SPE), which sometimes accompanies solar flares, and may be the most potent space radiation hazard to lightly shielded spacecraft. Regardless of the source, large amounts of radiation exposure can lead to radiation sickness and have the potential to damage the body's chromosomes.

Fundamental Biology Experiments List:

Active Dosimetry of Charged Particles
Biorack Experiments
Cellular Mechanisms of Space Flight-Specific
Stress to Plants (BRIC)
Developmental Analysis of Seeds Grown on Mir
Effective Dose Measurement at EVA
Effects of Gravity on Insect Circadian Rhythmicity
Environmental Radiation Measurements on Mir Space Station
Greenhouse - Integrated Plant Experiments on Mir (Phase 1A)
Greenhouse - Integrated Plant Experiments on Mir
Incubator - Integrated Quail Experiments on Mir (Phase 1A)
Incubator - Integrated Quail Experiments on Mir
Standard Interface Glovebox Operations (SIGB)

Human Life Sciences

On Earth, gravity plays a key role in the function of human physiological systems. Bones and muscles provide support and structure to the body and the ability to move around in Earth's gravity. The neurovestibular system uses gravity for the detection of body orientation, motion, acceleration and balance. The cardiovascular and muscular systems work together to circulate blood and other fluids through the body; this includes pumping blood upward from the feet and legs, against the downward pull of gravity.

Space flight places humans in an environment unlike any found on Earth. Microgravity, or the nearly complete absence of gravity, is perhaps the most prominent obstacle that astronauts face. It requires a significant modification of living and working habits by the astronauts. Not only do they have to learn to adapt to the way they perform routine operations, such as eating, moving and operating equipment, but they must also learn to adjust to the internal changes that their bodies experience in microgravity.

During the early space flights in both the U.S. and Soviet programs, scientists observed a variety of changes in astronauts and cosmonauts, including decreased exercise capacity, altered body fluid volumes and electrolyte levels, disturbances in the neurovestibular system, muscle atrophy, a loss of red blood cell mass, decreased bone density, and reduced cardiovascular performance. Observations made during these early flights caused scientists to continue their research on longer duration missions, such as the United States Skylab missions and the Soviet Union's Salyut missions.

All of this past research has led to today's current Human Life Sciences research, in which United States and Russian scientists worked together in the Shuttle-Mir program to determine how the human body adapts to the microgravity environment. Scientists will use the knowledge gained from Shuttle-Mir to assure crew health and safety on future space stations. These results may also contribute to current scientific and medical knowledge, thus improving the quality of life on Earth.

Human Life Sciences Experiments

Cardiovascular Studies - Study the methods to reduce the cardiovascular readaptation effects of long periods in space.

Endocrinology - Studies designed to examine hormonal responses in microgravity.

Hematology - Studies designed to examine loss of red blood cell mass in microgravity.

Human Factors - Study of physical and mental coordination during space flight.

Immunology - Studies designed to examine physiologic responses to fluid redistribution in microgravity.

Microbiology - Study the environmental and microbiological characteristics in the spacecraft.

Muscle and Bone - Study the effect of microgravity on the muscles and bones of astronauts.

Neuroscience - Study of the changes occurring in the Central Nervous System (CNS) of the human body during a stay in microgravity.

Pharmacology - Space pharmacologists study how weightlessness may affect the appearance, chemistry, actions or uses of drugs.

Radiation Studies - Study the radiation characteristics in the spacecraft as well as the effect of radiation on crewmembers.

ISS Risk Mitigation

This research involved utilizing the Russian Mir Space Station as a test bed for building future space stations. There are many factors to consider when designing a space station. Researchers performed tests aboard Mir that would help them draw conclusions about how to build the International Space Station (ISS).

A number of Shuttle flights took sections of the Station into space, carrying the unassembled sections in the payload bay. Once in space, the crewmembers performed extravehicular activities (EVAs) to assemble the sections and to test construction of the Mir.

The Mir's interior and exterior environments were fully evaluated. Researchers measured audible noise levels inside the Mir, radio interference, force impacts to the interior structures caused by crewmember movements, particle impact to the exterior of Mir, docking stability when the Shuttle is docked to the Mir station, and monitored changes in the quality of the crew's water supply. In addition, four passive payloads were attached to the Mir docking module during Mir-21/NASA-2, and remained attached throughout the Shuttle-Mir program to collect debris from and data about the external environment of Mir.

Data gathered during Shuttle-Mir will be used in the design of the International Space Station. Using the Mir as a test bed will reduce technical risks for ISS construction and operation.

ISS Risk Mitigation Experiments List:

Active Rack Isolation Systems (ARIS)
Cosmic Radiation and Effects Activation Monitor (CREAM)
Enhanced Dynamic Load Sensors (EDLS) on Mir
Inventory Management System (IMS)
Micrometeoroid/Debris Photo Survey of Mir
Mir Audible Noise Measurement (MANM)
Mir Electric Field Characterization (MEFC)
Mir Enviromental Effects Payload (MEEP)
Mir Structural Dynamics Experiment (MiSDE)
Mir Wireless Network Experiment (MWNE)
Optical Properties Monitor (OPM)
Orbital Debris Collector (ODC)
Passive Optical Sample Assembly (POSA-1)
Passive Optical Sample Assembly (POSA-2)
Polish Plate Micrometeoroid Debris (PPMD) Collector
Radiation Monitoroing Equipment - III
Real-Time Radiation Monitoring Device (RRMD)
Shuttle-Mir Alignment Stability Experiment (SMASE)
Space Portable Spectroreflectometer (SPSR)
Test of Portable Computer System (TPCS) Hardware
Water Microbiological Monitoring (WMM)

Life Support Risk Mitigation

Life support systems are a very important part of any space station. These systems provide the fundamental items that every human needs: air to breathe, water to drink, and temperature control. This research involved utilizing the Russian Mir Space Station as a test bed for building life support systems on future space stations.

The research focused on performing a thorough analysis of the life support systems currently on Mir, as well as studying systems planned for use on the International Space Station. Systems that regenerate air and water, systems that provide quality air and water, EVA monitoring, and medical restraint systems were all studied.

Life Support Risk Mitigation Experiments List:

Crew Medical Restraint System (CMRS)
Volatile Organics Analyzer (VOA)
Volatile Removal Assembly (VRA)
Water Quality Monitor (WQM)

Microgravity

Microgravity experiments focus on materials processing and biotechnology in space, and involve studying cell cultures, producing metals, and growing crystals. By studying fundamental properties and processes of chemistry, physics, materials and fluids, NASA hopes to identify appropriate future technology needs. For instance, researchers would like to demonstrate the feasibility of producing improved materials (larger, purer crystals and stronger metal alloys) in space.

Studying phenomena such as crystal growth and the creation of new metals in space requires special hardware, such as furnaces, acceleration sensors, crystal growth facilities and cell culture chambers. Not only did researchers learn about fundamental properties, but they also learned valuable information about how to build beneficial technology facilities for future space stations.

Microgravity Experiments List:

Ambient Diffusion-Controlled Protein Crytal Growth (DCAM)
Angular Liquid Bridge Experiment (ALB) - MGBX
Binary Colloidal Alloy Tests (BCAT1 & 2) - MGBX
Biochemistry of 3-D Tissue Engineering (BIO3D) - BTS
Biotechnology System (BTS) Coculture
Biotechnology System (BTS) Diagnostic Experiment
Biotechnology System (BTS) Facility Operations
Canadian Protein Crystallization Experiment (CAPE) - MIM
Candle Flame in Microgravity (CFM) - MGBX
Cartilage in Space - BTS
Colloidal Gelatin (CGEL)
Forced Flow Flame Spreading Test (FFFT) - MGBX
Interface Configuration Experiment (ICE) - MGBX
Interferometric Study of Protein Crystal Growth (IPCG) - MGBX
Liquid Metal Diffusion Experiment (LMD) - MIM
Mechanics of Granular Materials (MGM)
Microgravity Glovebox (MGBX) Facility Operations
Microgravity Isolation Mount (MIM) Facility Operations
Opposed Flame Flow Spread on Cylindrical Surfaces (OFFS) - MGBX
Passive Accelerometer System (PAS) - MGBX
Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) GN2 Dewar (Phase 1A)
Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) GN2 Dewar
Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)/Vapor Diffusion Apparatus (VDA-2) - STES
Queen's University Experiment in Liquid Diffusion (QUELD) - MIM
Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS) Operations
(Phase 1A)
Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS) Operations
Technological Evaluation of MIM (TEM-1 & 2)

Space Sciences

Our solar system is dynamic and ever-changing, and there are many unanswered questions concerning both its origin and its future. During the Shuttle-Mir program, scientists studied the history of the development of the different planetary systems, as well as the outlook for our own planet Earth.

The Space Sciences experiments were designed to capture cosmic dust over a 6 month to 1 year period of time. During the Mir-21/NASA-2 mission, EVAs were performed to externally mount these experiments to the Kvant-2 module of the Mir Space Station, where they were left to capture the cosmic dust particles. A second EVA was performed to retrieve the experiments and return them to Earth, where scientists performed chemical, organic and mineralogical analyses on the cosmic particles.

Space Sciences Experiments List:

Mir Sample Return Experiment (MSRE)
Particle Impact Experiment (PIE)

| Phase 1 Program Overview | Advanced Technologies | Earth Sciences | Fundamental Biology |
| Human Life Sciences | ISS Risk Mitigation | Life Support Risk Mitigation |
| Microgravity | Space Sciences |
| Research Program Overview | Phase 1 Science Report | Combustion | Fluid Physics | SAMS |

You will need the free Adobe Acrobat application to view the following PDF document. Adobe Acrobat is available on this CD under Search.

Phase 1 Research Program Overview (PDF)

Submitted by: John J. Uri, Phase 1 Mission Scientist, NASA/Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX and Oleg N. Lebedev, RKK-Energiya, Korolyov, Russia

| Phase 1 Program Overview | Advanced Technologies | Earth Sciences | Fundamental Biology |
| Human Life Sciences | ISS Risk Mitigation | Life Support Risk Mitigation |
| Microgravity | Space Sciences |
| Research Program Overview | Phase 1 Science Report | Combustion | Fluid Physics | SAMS |

You will need the free Adobe Acrobat application to view the following PDF document. Adobe Acrobat is available on this CD under Search.

The following document represents NASA Mir science program results to date. Each investigation is summarized, and includes the objectives, operations, results, and conclusions. A publications list is available for some investigations.

Phase 1 Science Report

(PDF - complete document - 123 pages)

Or you may choose the individual sections of the document: (all PDFs)

Table of Contents
Advanced Technologies
Earth Sciences
Fundamental Biology
Human Life Sciences
ISS Risk Mitigation
Life Support Risk Mitigation
Microgravity
Space Sciences

| Phase 1 Program Overview | Advanced Technologies | Earth Sciences | Fundamental Biology |
| Human Life Sciences | ISS Risk Mitigation | Life Support Risk Mitigation |
| Microgravity | Space Sciences |
| Research Program Overview | Phase 1 Science Report | Combustion | Fluid Physics | SAMS |

You will need the free Adobe Acrobat application to view the following PDF document. Adobe Acrobat is available on this CD under Search.

Combustion Experiments on the Mir Space Station (PDF)

Submitted by: Paul Ferkul, Kurt R. Sacksteder, Paul S. Greenberg, Daniel L. Dietrich, Howard D. Ross, James S. T'ien, Robert A. Altenkirch, Lin Tang, Matt Bundy, and Michael Delichatsios.

Combustion tests were carried out on the Mir Space Station. Flat sheets of paper, polyethylene-insulated wires, cylindrical cellulosic samples, and candles were burned in microgravity. The test parameters included sample size, fuel preheating levels, and low-speed air velocity.

Data were collected mainly through video cameras, audio recordings of crew observations, and 35mm still pictures. For many of these tests, thermocouples permitted the recording of temperatures of the gas phase flame and/or solid fuel. After the flight, the flame images and temperature data were compared to numerical simulations.

Several unique phenomena were observed and the results have implications for spacecraft fire safety. These include the influence of airflow, fuel melting and bubbling, and fuel-vapor generation, and condensation after the flame extinguished.

Summary: Combustion Experiments on Mir - shorter summary of the above paper with updated pictures

| Phase 1 Program Overview | Advanced Technologies | Earth Sciences | Fundamental Biology |
| Human Life Sciences | ISS Risk Mitigation | Life Support Risk Mitigation |
| Microgravity | Space Sciences |
| Research Program Overview | Phase 1 Science Report | Combustion | Fluid Physics | SAMS |

You will need the free Adobe Acrobat application to view the following PDF document. Adobe Acrobat is available on this CD under Search.

Fluid Physics Experiments on the Mir Space Station (PDF)

Submitted by: Jeffrey S. Allen, National Center for Microgravity Research and Suzanne Saavedra, NASA Lewis Research Center

This document is an overview of the NASA sponsored fluid physics experiments conducted on the Mir Space Station beginning with the launch of the Priroda module in April, 1996. The NASA sponsored fluid physics experiments on Mir have studied free surface behavior, capillary-driven flows, and colloidal science. This review discusses the scope, conduct, and results of these experiments. In addition, the lessons learned with respect to remote operation of experiments on the Mir Space Station are discussed.

| Phase 1 Program Overview | Advanced Technologies | Earth Sciences | Fundamental Biology |
| Human Life Sciences | ISS Risk Mitigation | Life Support Risk Mitigation |
| Microgravity | Space Sciences |
| Research Program Overview | Phase 1 Science Report | Combustion | Fluid Physics | SAMS |

You will need the free Adobe Acrobat application to view the following PDF document. Adobe Acrobat is available on this CD under Search.

Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS) on Mir (PDF)

Principal Investigator: R. DeLombard, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
Co-Investigator: S. Ryaboukha, RSC Energia, Kaliningrad, Russia

The SAMS was designed by a team at NASA NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC). The seven flight units of SAMS were flown on twenty Shuttle missions between June 1991 and January1998. Shannon Lucid and John Blaha flew with SAMS flight unit E on STS-43 and were later re-united with it on Mir. In late August 1994, the SAMS flight unit E was flown onboard the Progress 224 (M-24) flight and transferred to Mir by the Russian cosmonauts.